Excursions in Literature Unit 4 Flashcard

Excursions in Literature Unit 4

buy custom Medicaid Requirements for Florida and California essay

buy custom Medicaid Requirements for Florida and California essay Medicaid is a program that involves all the federal states that aim at providing health insurance to people of low income. The aim of Medicaid is providing medical services to people who cannot afford. The federal government provides the funds required to finance the program. These people include children, adults, people with a disability and pregnant mothers whether single or married. It also covers services in nursing homes for people who qualify. However, each state runs its on Medicaid programs, and makes policies on how the program should be managed. In Florida, children below the age of 18 years, their parents or guardians are eligible for Medicaid if the familys net income does not exceed the set income limit and the asset worthiness are below $ 2000. However, eligibility for Medicaid for the child in California depends on the Childs status and not the status of the parent or guardian. This means a child qualifies for Medicaid services even if the guardian is rich. Therefore, the uniting factor in the two states is that eligibility for Medicaid requires that the child to come from the family of low income and resources. In California, any pregnant woman, whether married or single s eligible for Medicaid. In addition, the Medicaid eligibility extends to both the mother and the child if the Medicaid covered the mother. Considering Florida, the pregnant women can also apply for Medicaid. Although, in Florida, Medicaid is packaged into categories ranging from the prenatal care, which partially coves for the pregnant woman for the short period, fully coverage for pregnant women, and regular Medicaid coverage. In Florida, parents and guardians can apply for Medicaid on behalf of their children, provided their children are below 19 years. However, parents application is possible if the children are living in their homes, or the family income is under the predetermined limit. This is the case in California, though one can apply if the child is sick to the point that he will need nursing home care, and could enjoy quality care at home. In addition, California State allows a child living on his own, to apply for Medicaid on his behalf, or any adult. In both California and Florida states, they consider people of 65 years and above eligible for Medicaid. This is subject to limited income and resources for the individual in question. In both states, blind people receive the same treatment when it comes to Meddicaid eligibility. The blind is eligible for Medicaid provided they have limited income and resources. The disabled living in nursing homes and could live in their homes if given quality home care are eligible for Medicaid. The Medicaid eligibility is allowed to people in both the states, if the person is suffering from chronic diseases. In both California and Florida states, Medicaid is provided to a noncitizen in the case of emergence. The aliens are required to prove that indeed it was an emergence situation. However, the rules of classifying situations to emergence may vary from states to states depending on the rules that govern the classification of emergence situations. Despite the difference that is apparent between the eligibility for the Medicaid, there is a similarity in the way the rules applies. However, a similarity of eligibility seems to concentrate on the low income and resource levels that the person is required to meet. Both of the states focus on the individuals age whether pregnant, the level of income, is he blind or aged. However, in California and Florida Medicaid is a particularly significant program of providing affordable health care services to those who could not meet the basic health requirement. Buy custom Medicaid Requirements for Florida and California essay

Israel-Palestine Conflict Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Israel-Palestine Conflict - Essay Example Hence, religion in its sense serves the role of rallying masses into deeming together with their leaders (like Fatah) while agitating adheres to what its statutes dictates, which is quite untrue1. Political issues have characterized this conflict though leaders try to incline on religion to attain their goals, which is evident in the case of Hamas who despite winning legally internal officials assumed diverse stands. This implies religion in this case encompasses pulling masses’ support but at the top its purely politics that will continue to paralyze the state’s affairs. I agree with you in arguing if the region desires peace ought to back Hamas for the international community to have a legal platform to intervene. I agree with you the conflict that characterizes Israel-Palestinians sour relationship its basis is not purely religion but instigators incline to blaming it citing as the source of differences between the two sides. They use creed as a scapegoat into undert aking their evil actions, which is also evident globally in form of malicious attacks. However, instigators of these conflicts are only out to realize their political interests but hoodwink the masses into deeming religion is the key reason and ought to protect it even if it implies dying in the process.

The artistic relationship between Edgar Degas and Mary Cassatt Essay - 1

The artistic relationship between Edgar Degas and Mary Cassatt - Essay Example It was due to her burning passion for art that prompted her to persuade her father to allow her to go to Europe and start her painting career. It was during one of his visits to the salon that Degas saw a painting by Cassatt. Later when they met, he introduced her to the group of artists called The French Impressionists. From this point, an artistic as well as a personal relationship developed between the two artists. Various critics and observers as well as close friends point out that Cassatt’s work was an inspiration of Degas, while Degas relied on her for postures and critics1. To find out the relationship between the two artists, this paper will analyze some of the works by the two artists as well as critic’s thoughts and ideas about their relationship. At the start of her career in France, Cassatt greatly admired the works of Degas and several other artists from the impressionists group. She was mostly impressed by the modernity and the colorfulness of the picture . The freedom and independence in which the artists did their painting captivated her. When their relationship flourished, Degas helped her not only adopt the fresh colors that were central to the new impressionism, but also the light effects that created the picture of modernity paintings. Moreover, Degas’s use of Japanese woodcuts and etchings molded Cassatt to a great printmaker as she constantly borrowed the art from him, making her an equal innovator just like him. Although Degas was classified as an impressionist, he never adopted the color fleck characterized by the impressionists. Instead, he was a classical artist, who was inspected by the wars and their tombs, which he expressed through paintings. On her part, Cassatt’s work was a blend of modernity and classics, especially the manner in which she looked at things, passionately and with compassion2. The impressionists were a group of artists who used color and light to paint that saw the revolution of the mod ern form of painting among the people, a departure from the traditional way of painting. Initially, it was developed by artists from Paris who did not embrace the idea of following painting standards set by the government. They did not have to present their work to the salon in front of a judge who would determine whether they met the standards or not3. Mostly, they painted about modernity and the issues facing the society around them, without the usual allure of traditionalism in the paintings. Critics point out that before she met these artists, Cassatt was experiencing a hard time with her painting career as she used to express it openly. Two of her paintings had been rejected by the judge, which left her devastated and desperate. In what appeared to have been the revolution of her career was her meeting with Degas. She acknowledged that she felt alive when she made the discovery of the impressionists. The two artists were drawn closer by similar ideologies that they shared, espe cially their resentment for the salon and love for modern paintings. The sharing of a common artistic sensibilities and interests by the two artists propelled the growth and development of their working relationship that lasted for forty years. They both shared a similar background, as they all came from upper-class of the rich. Due to this, their works portrayed a form of resemblance and similarity in their thinking and settings. In addition to paintings of each other, some of which

Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 17

Article Example As asserted by Thoreau (para 18), injustice cases are counted-friction to the government machine because when found to have broken a particular law then the person is put in prison for unlimited period determined by the discretion of those who put one in the prison. Thoreau provides us with the story in jail so that we can visualize the poor rule of the state including its accusations for the example Thoreau’s roommate was accused of burning a barn and the tedious trial process (Thoreau para 28-35). Thoreau being in jail made him has various thoughts because he had never expected to be held and to be in custody for one night was like a novel. Thoreau (para 25) proposes that, it is ironical to the state to order Thoreau to pay a certain sum to support a clergyman whose preaching was attended by Thoreau’s father. This is effective in exposing to us the weakness of the state power. The majority view of the government is that most governments carry out its activities at its expediency as contrary to the minority as was the basis of Thoreau justice was democracy (Thoreau para 45). A Chinese philosopher who regarded that individual is the basis of empire is not Lao-Tzu but there is a progress to individual respect and such democracy is yet to be

Kautilyas Arthashastra and War

Kautilyas Arthashastra and War CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Arthashastra Kautilya on War. Kautilya was a proponent of a welfare state but definitely encouraged war for preserving the power of the state. Kautilyas Arthashastra is a book of pure logic, not taking any religious aspect into account. It deals with the various subjects directly and with razor like sharpness. The Arthashastra totally contains 5363 Sutras, 15 books, 150 chapters, and 180 Sections. The 15 Books contained in the Arthashastra can be classified in the following manner: Book 1, as a book on Fundamentals of Management, Book 2 dealing with Economics, Books 3, 4 and 5 on Law, Books 6, 7, 8 describes Foreign Policies. Books 9 to 14 concerns subjects on War. The 15th book deals with the methodology and devices used in writing the Arthashastra. What is interesting to note is that the topic of war is the last subject in the Arthashastra. War is always the last option. However, a war in certain cases is unavoidable, hence, preparation and maintenance of the army, the right moves in the battle field and warfar e strategies all are essential in the defence of a country, subjects which Kautilya tackles with the extra sensory precision. Economics in Statecraft and War. Kautilya thought that the possession of power and happiness in a state makes a king superior hence a king should always strive to augment his power. Kautilya propounded that war is natural for a state. He said that, Power is strength and strength changes the minds[2].Economic power has helped shape statecraft. This element of power is very flexible. Thi s aspect of the power is one which Arthashastra concentrates on and has highlighted Artha, the economics of the state in the pursuit of power. The quest for power is driven by the satisfaction of the king and his subjects in all the spheres of material well being and social acceptance. This can be achieved by a progressive and robust economy. A corollary to this fact is that the economics of a state can be used to progress the influence of the state over international issues and also used to augment the war waging potential of the state. Whether a nation has a large or small military, its leadership does understand economics. Economics is a great tool to create conditions for further action or force a nation to change behaviour. There are constraints prevelant in the pursuit of sound economy to further the war waging capability of a state and in turn achieve te power . the resolution of these constraints is the enigma which Kautilya unraveled through Arthashastra. 2. Kautilya presents that for a King to attain these three goals he must create wealth, have armies and should conquer the kingdoms and enlarge the size of his state. This is quite interesting because he in a way does believe that a states superiority is in its military and economic might which is what later philosophers and rulers have followed. In the case of war, Kautilya advocates the King to be closely involved in the science of war. 3. Classifications of War. Kautilya advocated three types of war: Open war, Concealed war and the Silent War[3]. Open war he describes as the war fought between states, concealed war as one which is similar to guerilla war and Silent war which is fought on a continued basis inside the kingdom so that the power of the King does not get diluted. He believed that there were three types of kings who go into warfare and it is important to understand the distinction between the types of kings and the appropriate warfare strategy to be selected. 4. Kautilya propounded that state is not considered a massive entity but as one which combines various internal constituents the king , the fortified city ,the countryside, the treasury and the army. The power with which a state can promote its own interests over other states in the neighbourhood depends on how close to ideal the internal constituents are. The four devices Kautilya used for deriving practical advice were: relative power, deviations from the ideal, classification by the type of motivation and the influence of the unpredictable. This is the core what Arthashastra addresses as the endeavour is to resolve all the constraints that arise in the quest of the state to gain ascendency and enhance its power. 5. War fighting tactics. Kautilya was also very harsh in narrating the exact methods of fighting a war and use of various tools to reduce the strength of a state. Kautilya wrote in detail explaining the war strategy because he was a strong proponent of social structure. He vehemently defends the state and believes that religion and morals are supposed to serve the state. In Kautilyas concept of war, chivalry does not have any place and he is a realist. Kautilya in his Arthashastra and believes that war is a means to an end for wealth and stability. He provided the understanding to resolve all the constraints which emerge to achieve the ends. Kautilya has argued that the primary constraint that a state faces is the economic constraints and many a war has been lost for want of resources. The Arthashastra has guided the king in eliminating the constraints, primarily the economic constraints in the furtherance of its interests. The use of economic strength as a means of statess power has also been highlighted by Kautilya. 6. Kautilya also took the societal structure and Kings power as given and never challenged it. His focus was not on war per se but on the strategy and tactics of war which elaborates in his work. In describing his opinion on war, he has been very right in saying that a state which seeks power is in war all the time and economy is the most definitive aspect which governs the quest of the state for power. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem 1. The aim of this paper is to investigate the modus operandi for the resolution of the economic constraints, imposed in an armed conflict during the Arthashastra period and its concurrence in the present times. Justification for the Study 2. Constraints in War. Armed conflict has many facets attached to it and it is not a mere attack and capture as the folklore puts it to be. The constraints as they emerge, from the time of planning of a battle till the time the armies face each other at the outbreak of the hostilities, are what the commander in the battlefield has to counter and work out the resolution of each of the prevalent constraints. The constraints as defined for the evaluation of this research is akin to the risks or uncertainties as they present themselves in the battlefield and which may govern the outcome of the war or the projection of the true power of the nation state. The constraints present as tangible constraints and also intangible blocks which have to be resolved in order to progress the war and ultimately achieve victory. The tangible constraints can be classified as the economic requirements for war effort to sustain and the logistics support required for the armed forces and the intangibles are morale, leadership and the training of the troops. 3. Evaluating Constraints. The fog of war has prompted strategists throughout history to grapple with the concept of constraints/risk and methodologies for its assessment. There will always be uncertainty. It often will be immeasurable. The very nature of war and conflict and the increasingly complex strategic environment ensures that this is so. Is risk/constraint assessment simply the .comfort level that senior planners experience as they assess key variables? [6] Strategic risks then is the probability of failure in achieving a strategic objective at an acceptable cost. The concept is simple to articulate and easy to understand. But, as in war, the simplest things in strategy are the most difficult. 4. Constraints Management Arthashastra . The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as Science of Politics, Treatise on Polity or the Science of Political Economy. These have been translated over time in the subjects of Timeless Laws of Politics, Economy, Diplomacy and War. Kautilyas treatise encapsulates in many ways, the complexity of the modern times with the constraints faced during war being the same as were relevant in older times. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Constraint resolution in the Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. Study of Kautilyas war strategy will provide an insight into the knowledge of warfare in ancient India and would also throw up important aspects of the constraints to warfare in the moder n world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers. 5. Hypothesis. The growth of the nation state has been based on the gain of the economic power and the shift in the economic potential. This has resulted in the economics of war emerging as the single most important constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state. The concurrence of the economic power with the military power of a nation state has been the cornerstone of the present day world powers. Kautilya in Arthashastra had realised the prominence of economy in the statecraft and the war strategy. How relevant those postulates are in the modern day strength of a nation state? The ability of the state to exert its influence for the furtherance of the national interests has been defined by the resolution of the economic constraints. The military has become the national instrument that can enforce the economic objective and thus the military power of a nation. Therefore the role of the economic power and the resolution of the economic constraints of a nation are primary for the acceptance of a Nation-State as a world power. 6. Scope. The scope of this paper is restricted to study and analysis of the economics of war. The financial constraints in the war potential of the State and the methods adopted by Kautilya to resolve those constraints. The study will attempt to identify possible constraints in the war potential of the State and present the relevance of Arthashastra in constraint management with the modern day constraint resolution. It will be further endeavoured to understand the lacunae in the present day approach and investigate the Arthashastra for solutions. Thereafter, the paper will focus on assessing the perceived link between economic power of the state and the military power and how one is derived from the other. The resolution of the economic constraints as practiced during Kautilyas time and in the modern times will also be discussed. 7. Methods of Data Collection. There are many books written translating the Arthashastra. Modern Warfare strategy has many parallels in the theories as propounded by Kautilya. Research on this topic will be mostly based on the translations of Arthashastra and its relevance with the modern day approach to the resolution of the economic constraints in the war waging potential of the nation state. Sources are likely to include the following:- (a) Books written by eminent authors and translation of the Arthashastra by various authors. (b) Articles in periodicals and Journals. (c) Reports of International strategists and researchers on Arthashastra. (d) Websites featuring proceedings of various conferences and meetings on the subject. (f) Papers published or presented by various organisations on the subject. 8. Organisation of the Dissertation. This study is envisaged to be organised under the following chapters:- (a) Introduction. (b) Methodology. (c) Constraints in warfare -Drawing parallels with Arthashastra. (d) Arthashastra approach to economics of war. (e) Derivation of Military power from economic power. (f) Resolution of economic constraints to war potential. (g) Conclusion CHAPTER III CONSTRAINTS IN WARFARE DRAWING PARALLELS WITH ARTHASHASTRA 1. Interests of the nation state. The behavior of a nation-state is rooted in the pursuit, protection, and promotion of its interests. The interests of the nation state are to be accurately identified to understand much of its behavior vis-ÃÆ'  -vis other states and actors in the international system. All states have common interests like its territory, its people, and its sovereignty. While forces outside their own boundaries affect all countries large and powerful, small and weak, a certain level of sovereignty is critical to the notion of national interests. A country that is unable to exercise effective control over its territory and its peoples, relatively free from the intrusion of other nation-states into its internal affairs, is lacking in this critical element of sovereignty. War is an instrument of national policy, albeit a violent one. 2. Arthashastra view point. Kautilyas Arthashastra was a science of politics intended to teach a wise king how to govern. In this work, Kautilya offers wide-ranging and truly fascinating discussions on war and diplomacy, including his wish to have his king become a world conqueror, his analysis of which kingdoms are natural allies and which are inevitable enemies, his willingness to make treaties he knew he would break, his doctrine of silent war or a war of assassination against an unsuspecting king, his approval of secret agents who killed enemy leaders and sowed discord among them, his view of women as weapons of war, his use of religion and superstition to bolster his troops and demoralize enemy soldiers, the spread of disinformation, and his humane treatment of conquered soldiers and subjects. 3. Kautilya thought there was a science of warfare, presumably part of a larger science of politics. Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others: Infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants should carry out practice in the arts outside (the city) at sun-rise. The king should constantly attend to that, and should frequently inspect their arts.[9] Open war is obvious, and concealed war is what we call guerrilla warfare, but silent war is a kind of fighting that no other thinker could propound and thus Kautiliya was much ahead of his times and this makes his thinking relevant even today. Silent war is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ and unknowingly, the peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ all act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and s preading propaganda and disinformation. 4. Kautilya advised the king that When he is superior in troops, when secret instigations are made (in the enemys camp), when precautions are taken about the season, (and) when he is on land suitable to himself, he should engage in an open fight. In the reverse case, (he should resort to) concealed fighting.[12] 5. Overriding the constraints. Speaking of justice to an enemy about to conquer is the last tactic of the weak, willing to try all tactics, even desperate ones, Kautilya made up a powerful speech to be given by a weak king to the king about to conquer, a speech offering a mixture of moral exhortation and arguments based on the self-interest of the conqueror. In this speech, Kautilya depicted an envoy saying to the conquering king that he should accept a treaty and pay regard to [his] spiritual and material well-being; that conquering a kingdom willing to surrender on reasonable terms is an impious act; that battle is not in the conquering kings self-interest, since to fight with brave men who have given up all hope of life is a rash deed and the conqueror will lose troops and material good; that such a conquest will only unite his enemies all the more; that the conquering kings enemies are only waiting for him to be weakened in order to attack; that he himself is risking death; that war itself in which men on each side die is an impious act; and that he should not listen to enemies masquerading as friends who are giving him false advice as to his real self-interest.[13] Kautilya demonstrated the realities of diplomacy and war as well as the ineffectiveness of moral pleas when confronted by a superior power. Kautilya wanted legions, but he wanted them preceded by elephants, which acted in the ancient world a bit like modern tanks. 6. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. And in the absence of a fort, the treasury will fall into the hands of enemies, those with forts are not exterminated.[15] 7. Constraint resolution. Kautilya was consistent in ranking the importance of the treasury, the army, and forts, but it seems that the people, or a popular army, are the most important of all. As he put it, one should seek a fortress with men.[19] 8. Kautilya apparently believed that an army of kshatriyas was best; warriors were supposed to find their highest duty and pleasure by dying in battle. Kautilya clearly argued that sections of the army should consist mostly of persons from the same region, caste or profession. It was a very clever idea to be mooted as common sense, shows that he is suggesting that men of an army should know one another, that an army of friends fighting side by side is the most difficult to defeat. On the subject of the kings location during battle, for example, he wrote: A bare army, without standards, consisting of warriors related as fathers, sons and brothers, should be the place for the king. An elephant or a chariot should be the vehicle for the king, guarded by cavalry. (Kautilya wanted a man who looked like the king to lead the army into battle.) And thus, a kings power, for Kautilya, is in the end tied to the power and popular energy of the people, without which a king can be conquered, for n ot being rooted among his subjects, a king becomes easy to uproot.[20] Although Kautilya wrote of using money to raise an army and even of purchasing heroic men, he was not advocating mercenaries who fought only for pay, but he was merely outlining the cost of paying, supplying, and feeding soldiers. He believed that hereditary troops are better than hired troops; in other words, troops made of men born in the kingdom and thus loyal to the king since birth are better than strangers fighting for money. 9. Contemporary school of thought. While military power may be the primary tool a nation uses to wage war, it is not the only one available. Military power, together with economic and political power, may be used to impose ones will upon an opponent. These other elements of national power, such as economic or political, are linked with military action at the national strategic level and passed to the operational and tactical levels of military actions through constraints or limitations on the use of force. Nevertheless, these other elements of power are not fully integrated at the lower levels of war. In the Marxist tradition, Svechin included the possibility of war on economic and social fronts as well as on a military front. [21] The actions along all fronts must be fully integrated and in accord with the political goals of the struggle. The use of diplomatic efforts to preclude and enemy alliance or a second hostile (military) front and economic efforts to insure sufficient financ ial resources for the conduct of combat operations. 10. While Kautilya had propounded the postulates for constraint management in warfare in the ancient times but the relevance with the contemporary thought is startling. Military power being only one of the instruments of national power has been highlighted by Kautilya and the same thought is holding today. The resolution of the constraints and overriding of the bottlenecks faced by the commander in the battlefield have their genesis in the employment of all the instruments of national power towards conflict resolution and that is why Arthashastra has been regarded as the epitome of statecraft in all the spheres. If decisive military force is used only as a last resort, after extensive diplomatic, economic, political, and even military power short of actual war have failed to break the will of the enemy, a quick and well placed application of military force would leave little opportunity for the implementation of further nonmilitary initiative. One must never lose sight of the overall objective of warfare which is to get the enemy to do ones will. This may be best achieved through a thoughtful and complete linkage of all elements of national power. With that linkage brought down to the operational level, chances for a long-lasting victory will increase dramatically. This is where Arthashastra and the present day war strategy are concomitant. CHAPTER IV ARTHASHASTRA APPROACH TO ECONOMICS OF WAR 1. Economics of the nation state. Economic power has become a very powerful tool to enhance the capabilities of a nation and limit those of an adversary. However, as nations become more intertwined through globalisation, they become more vulnerable to disruptions in their economies, manmade or natural, due to reliance on foreign sources of raw materials, components, finished products, or key services. A nation can also use its economy to try to defeat another power. The nation can use its economic power in attempts to destroy a targets capability to take certain actions or destroy its ability to project power. Although physical defeat of the enemy is more often associated with military operations, economic means are also viable to support the elimination of a nations ability to take certain actions. 2. A nations ability to provide resources to research, develop, and further educate their people can lead to new applications of science and knowledge to solve problems in other words, technology. Technological advances can replace existing weapon and support systems to enhance or expand war fighting capability. Acquiring technology through a nations own human resources or with capital resources can allow the nation to make great leaps in economic progress. 3. Arthashastra view of economy as precursor to military power. Kautilya emphasised that, the three kinds of powers intellectual, compelling, motivating are essentially and unavoidably required to be developed and employed in a manner that they complement each other. None can be used in isolation. According to Kautilya the main aim of any state is to increase ones power, mainly at the cost of the natural enemy. This increase in power is essentially the first step in the realisation of the ambition to conquer the world. However, Kautilya also specifically mentions that the most important factor that must be weighed before starting is the gain expected from the confrontation and the losses likely to be suffered. Normally, the gain that is to accrue should far outweigh the losses in men, animals and expenses in cash and grains. Thus Kautilya professed a thoughtful approach to the cause of expanding ones kingdom and always kept the focus on resolution of the economic constraints in the w ar waging capability of the state. He has also stressed that the king is duty bound to ensure, that the people of his kingdom are happy and content, because, a happy kingdom is likely to be prosperous. He further states that a prosperous and wealthy state is unlikely to succumb to another even in case of a conflict. 4. Kosa or the Treasury. The fifth most important element of the state is the treasury according to Kautilya. All activities of the state depend on finance and therefore sufficient attention needs to be given to the treasury. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. Kautilya lays down various causes that may contribute to the growth or reduction of the treasury. Kautilya says The wealth of the state shall be one acquired lawfully either by inheritance or by the kings own efforts. He further adds that the treasury should be rich enough to withstand any calamity especially when the state has no income for a long time. 5. Managing the economy for power Arthashastra approach. Management of the state necessitated realism, not idealism. It required the prudence and precise calculation of measures undertaken alongside their short and long-term consequences, which formulated the theoretical beginnings of economics: Wealth will slip away from that childish man who constantly consults the stars: the only guiding star of wealth is itself; what can the stars of the sky do? Man, without wealth, does not get it even after a hundred attempts. Just as elephants are needed to catch elephants, so does wealth capture more wealth.[22] Public welfare was contingent upon the strength of the state. The latter was achieved by internal development or territorial expansion, both of which were realized through power.[24] Hence, the prime motive of the state was the never-ending pursuit of artha. It is only after dedicating its energies to this end, can the state or king then move on to fulfilling dharma and kama. As such, the Arthashastra provides extensive coverage on the overall economy, which includes: infrastructure (roadwork, irrigation, forestry, and fortification), weights and measurements, labor and employment, commerce and trade, commodities and agriculture, land use and property laws, money and coinage, interest rates and loan markets, tariffs and taxes, and government expenditures and the treasury. The high level of detail dedicated to these areas demonstrates the remarkable organisation and centralisation of the state idealised in the Arthashastra, and it also supports the view that the information contained in the text is a compilation of works that have endured over long periods of trial and er ror. 6. The Arthashastra is surprisingly calculated on every minute detail and economic function the exact number of panas[25] is provided for every salaried position, legal ramification, commodity, and livestock. Economics was regulated through such central planning and the highly detailed attempts at identifying the optimal amount for every economic function stresses this constant strive towards efficiently improving the overall utility and welfare of society. Along with prudence and careful calculation, the state is advised to be extremely active or energetic in managing the economy, as the Arthashastra states that, The root of material well-being is activity, of material disaster its reverse. In the absence of activity, there is certain destruction of what is obtained and of what is not yet received. By activity reward is obtained, and one also secures abundance of riches.Similarly, a different verse in the same chapter advocates the direction of such activity towards improving publi c welfare. Though seemingly liberal and humanitarian, this too had a very important economic basis. Hence, dedicating resources to the lower rungs of society also strengthened the peripheries of the state, which in turn actuated territorial expansion. Furthermore, providing amenities for the poor masses indirectly stimulated population growth, and thus, the overall growth of the state and economy in the long run. Hence, there is a lot of truth in the verses in which the Arthashastra states that it is the people who constitute a kingdom; like a barren cow, a kingdom without people yields nothing. The emphasis on population growth for indirectly achieving economic prosperity is also hinted elsewhere in the text, in which the Arthashastra strongly prohibits premarital sex and adultery and instead encourages fertility via rewards and punishments framed within the legal system. Central planning was directed towards maintaining stability, order, and efficiency in the economy. 7. Kautilyas Principle and Aim of Economy Artha can therefore be summed up as Peace can be maintained by making war difficult and costly for the enemy through the balance of power achieved through alliances. 8. Contemporary perspective. Whilst the basis of exerting power of any country has been that of expansion in the last twenty odd years the focus has shifted from territorial expansion to one of economic expansion. There are a number of examples of countries or coalitions trying to exert pressure on other countries to ensure the protection of their own economic interests. The engagements between all the countries of the world bear testimony to the fact that almost all parties have been trying to protect their own interests in dealing with others. The principles enumerated by Kautilya in his policy of Samdhi or Treaty have almost universal application today. Countries today are indulging in more and more treaties or accords than ever before to safeguard their own interests. 9. Kautilya also mentions that war should be declared as a last resort and that all other means like sama, dana, and bheda (conciliation, gifts/bribes, dissension) should be implemented towards averting war. In other words Kautilya prefers putting pressure on the enemy without breaking the peace. These very principles have been laid down in Chapter I of the United Nations Charter, where article I states To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace. 10. This brings forth the justification of the well being of the society as the predominant factor since the ancient times till date. Also, the diversion of the resources meant for the well being of the society towards the war waging potential without the exploitation of all the options towards resolution is being despised upon. This was relevant during Kautilyas times and is as relevant today. Though economy is a major constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state, and all efforts are made by the state to strengthen this instrument of national power prior to gaining the military ascendency, it is also proving to be a major restraint in controllong the expansionist attitude of states since ancient times. CHAPTER V DERIVATION OF MILITARY POWER FROM ECONOMIC POWER 1. Economic power. Economic power can be defined broadly as the capacity to influence other states through economic means. It is composed of a countrys industrial base, natural resources, capital, technology, geographic position, health system and education system. 2. Military power. Military power is the capacity to use force or the threat of force to influence other states. Components of military power include number of divisions, armaments, organisation, training, equipment, readiness, deployment and morale. 3. Power is an elusive concept. In the historical perspective, military power has been paramount and economic power a luxury. This has slowly changed to the point that the two roles have become interchangeable. A countrys military capability is derived from its economic capacity. A countrys economic capacity also de Kautilyas Arthashastra and War Kautilyas Arthashastra and War CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Arthashastra Kautilya on War. Kautilya was a proponent of a welfare state but definitely encouraged war for preserving the power of the state. Kautilyas Arthashastra is a book of pure logic, not taking any religious aspect into account. It deals with the various subjects directly and with razor like sharpness. The Arthashastra totally contains 5363 Sutras, 15 books, 150 chapters, and 180 Sections. The 15 Books contained in the Arthashastra can be classified in the following manner: Book 1, as a book on Fundamentals of Management, Book 2 dealing with Economics, Books 3, 4 and 5 on Law, Books 6, 7, 8 describes Foreign Policies. Books 9 to 14 concerns subjects on War. The 15th book deals with the methodology and devices used in writing the Arthashastra. What is interesting to note is that the topic of war is the last subject in the Arthashastra. War is always the last option. However, a war in certain cases is unavoidable, hence, preparation and maintenance of the army, the right moves in the battle field and warfar e strategies all are essential in the defence of a country, subjects which Kautilya tackles with the extra sensory precision. Economics in Statecraft and War. Kautilya thought that the possession of power and happiness in a state makes a king superior hence a king should always strive to augment his power. Kautilya propounded that war is natural for a state. He said that, Power is strength and strength changes the minds[2].Economic power has helped shape statecraft. This element of power is very flexible. Thi s aspect of the power is one which Arthashastra concentrates on and has highlighted Artha, the economics of the state in the pursuit of power. The quest for power is driven by the satisfaction of the king and his subjects in all the spheres of material well being and social acceptance. This can be achieved by a progressive and robust economy. A corollary to this fact is that the economics of a state can be used to progress the influence of the state over international issues and also used to augment the war waging potential of the state. Whether a nation has a large or small military, its leadership does understand economics. Economics is a great tool to create conditions for further action or force a nation to change behaviour. There are constraints prevelant in the pursuit of sound economy to further the war waging capability of a state and in turn achieve te power . the resolution of these constraints is the enigma which Kautilya unraveled through Arthashastra. 2. Kautilya presents that for a King to attain these three goals he must create wealth, have armies and should conquer the kingdoms and enlarge the size of his state. This is quite interesting because he in a way does believe that a states superiority is in its military and economic might which is what later philosophers and rulers have followed. In the case of war, Kautilya advocates the King to be closely involved in the science of war. 3. Classifications of War. Kautilya advocated three types of war: Open war, Concealed war and the Silent War[3]. Open war he describes as the war fought between states, concealed war as one which is similar to guerilla war and Silent war which is fought on a continued basis inside the kingdom so that the power of the King does not get diluted. He believed that there were three types of kings who go into warfare and it is important to understand the distinction between the types of kings and the appropriate warfare strategy to be selected. 4. Kautilya propounded that state is not considered a massive entity but as one which combines various internal constituents the king , the fortified city ,the countryside, the treasury and the army. The power with which a state can promote its own interests over other states in the neighbourhood depends on how close to ideal the internal constituents are. The four devices Kautilya used for deriving practical advice were: relative power, deviations from the ideal, classification by the type of motivation and the influence of the unpredictable. This is the core what Arthashastra addresses as the endeavour is to resolve all the constraints that arise in the quest of the state to gain ascendency and enhance its power. 5. War fighting tactics. Kautilya was also very harsh in narrating the exact methods of fighting a war and use of various tools to reduce the strength of a state. Kautilya wrote in detail explaining the war strategy because he was a strong proponent of social structure. He vehemently defends the state and believes that religion and morals are supposed to serve the state. In Kautilyas concept of war, chivalry does not have any place and he is a realist. Kautilya in his Arthashastra and believes that war is a means to an end for wealth and stability. He provided the understanding to resolve all the constraints which emerge to achieve the ends. Kautilya has argued that the primary constraint that a state faces is the economic constraints and many a war has been lost for want of resources. The Arthashastra has guided the king in eliminating the constraints, primarily the economic constraints in the furtherance of its interests. The use of economic strength as a means of statess power has also been highlighted by Kautilya. 6. Kautilya also took the societal structure and Kings power as given and never challenged it. His focus was not on war per se but on the strategy and tactics of war which elaborates in his work. In describing his opinion on war, he has been very right in saying that a state which seeks power is in war all the time and economy is the most definitive aspect which governs the quest of the state for power. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem 1. The aim of this paper is to investigate the modus operandi for the resolution of the economic constraints, imposed in an armed conflict during the Arthashastra period and its concurrence in the present times. Justification for the Study 2. Constraints in War. Armed conflict has many facets attached to it and it is not a mere attack and capture as the folklore puts it to be. The constraints as they emerge, from the time of planning of a battle till the time the armies face each other at the outbreak of the hostilities, are what the commander in the battlefield has to counter and work out the resolution of each of the prevalent constraints. The constraints as defined for the evaluation of this research is akin to the risks or uncertainties as they present themselves in the battlefield and which may govern the outcome of the war or the projection of the true power of the nation state. The constraints present as tangible constraints and also intangible blocks which have to be resolved in order to progress the war and ultimately achieve victory. The tangible constraints can be classified as the economic requirements for war effort to sustain and the logistics support required for the armed forces and the intangibles are morale, leadership and the training of the troops. 3. Evaluating Constraints. The fog of war has prompted strategists throughout history to grapple with the concept of constraints/risk and methodologies for its assessment. There will always be uncertainty. It often will be immeasurable. The very nature of war and conflict and the increasingly complex strategic environment ensures that this is so. Is risk/constraint assessment simply the .comfort level that senior planners experience as they assess key variables? [6] Strategic risks then is the probability of failure in achieving a strategic objective at an acceptable cost. The concept is simple to articulate and easy to understand. But, as in war, the simplest things in strategy are the most difficult. 4. Constraints Management Arthashastra . The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as Science of Politics, Treatise on Polity or the Science of Political Economy. These have been translated over time in the subjects of Timeless Laws of Politics, Economy, Diplomacy and War. Kautilyas treatise encapsulates in many ways, the complexity of the modern times with the constraints faced during war being the same as were relevant in older times. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Constraint resolution in the Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. Study of Kautilyas war strategy will provide an insight into the knowledge of warfare in ancient India and would also throw up important aspects of the constraints to warfare in the moder n world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers. 5. Hypothesis. The growth of the nation state has been based on the gain of the economic power and the shift in the economic potential. This has resulted in the economics of war emerging as the single most important constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state. The concurrence of the economic power with the military power of a nation state has been the cornerstone of the present day world powers. Kautilya in Arthashastra had realised the prominence of economy in the statecraft and the war strategy. How relevant those postulates are in the modern day strength of a nation state? The ability of the state to exert its influence for the furtherance of the national interests has been defined by the resolution of the economic constraints. The military has become the national instrument that can enforce the economic objective and thus the military power of a nation. Therefore the role of the economic power and the resolution of the economic constraints of a nation are primary for the acceptance of a Nation-State as a world power. 6. Scope. The scope of this paper is restricted to study and analysis of the economics of war. The financial constraints in the war potential of the State and the methods adopted by Kautilya to resolve those constraints. The study will attempt to identify possible constraints in the war potential of the State and present the relevance of Arthashastra in constraint management with the modern day constraint resolution. It will be further endeavoured to understand the lacunae in the present day approach and investigate the Arthashastra for solutions. Thereafter, the paper will focus on assessing the perceived link between economic power of the state and the military power and how one is derived from the other. The resolution of the economic constraints as practiced during Kautilyas time and in the modern times will also be discussed. 7. Methods of Data Collection. There are many books written translating the Arthashastra. Modern Warfare strategy has many parallels in the theories as propounded by Kautilya. Research on this topic will be mostly based on the translations of Arthashastra and its relevance with the modern day approach to the resolution of the economic constraints in the war waging potential of the nation state. Sources are likely to include the following:- (a) Books written by eminent authors and translation of the Arthashastra by various authors. (b) Articles in periodicals and Journals. (c) Reports of International strategists and researchers on Arthashastra. (d) Websites featuring proceedings of various conferences and meetings on the subject. (f) Papers published or presented by various organisations on the subject. 8. Organisation of the Dissertation. This study is envisaged to be organised under the following chapters:- (a) Introduction. (b) Methodology. (c) Constraints in warfare -Drawing parallels with Arthashastra. (d) Arthashastra approach to economics of war. (e) Derivation of Military power from economic power. (f) Resolution of economic constraints to war potential. (g) Conclusion CHAPTER III CONSTRAINTS IN WARFARE DRAWING PARALLELS WITH ARTHASHASTRA 1. Interests of the nation state. The behavior of a nation-state is rooted in the pursuit, protection, and promotion of its interests. The interests of the nation state are to be accurately identified to understand much of its behavior vis-ÃÆ'  -vis other states and actors in the international system. All states have common interests like its territory, its people, and its sovereignty. While forces outside their own boundaries affect all countries large and powerful, small and weak, a certain level of sovereignty is critical to the notion of national interests. A country that is unable to exercise effective control over its territory and its peoples, relatively free from the intrusion of other nation-states into its internal affairs, is lacking in this critical element of sovereignty. War is an instrument of national policy, albeit a violent one. 2. Arthashastra view point. Kautilyas Arthashastra was a science of politics intended to teach a wise king how to govern. In this work, Kautilya offers wide-ranging and truly fascinating discussions on war and diplomacy, including his wish to have his king become a world conqueror, his analysis of which kingdoms are natural allies and which are inevitable enemies, his willingness to make treaties he knew he would break, his doctrine of silent war or a war of assassination against an unsuspecting king, his approval of secret agents who killed enemy leaders and sowed discord among them, his view of women as weapons of war, his use of religion and superstition to bolster his troops and demoralize enemy soldiers, the spread of disinformation, and his humane treatment of conquered soldiers and subjects. 3. Kautilya thought there was a science of warfare, presumably part of a larger science of politics. Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others: Infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants should carry out practice in the arts outside (the city) at sun-rise. The king should constantly attend to that, and should frequently inspect their arts.[9] Open war is obvious, and concealed war is what we call guerrilla warfare, but silent war is a kind of fighting that no other thinker could propound and thus Kautiliya was much ahead of his times and this makes his thinking relevant even today. Silent war is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ and unknowingly, the peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ all act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and s preading propaganda and disinformation. 4. Kautilya advised the king that When he is superior in troops, when secret instigations are made (in the enemys camp), when precautions are taken about the season, (and) when he is on land suitable to himself, he should engage in an open fight. In the reverse case, (he should resort to) concealed fighting.[12] 5. Overriding the constraints. Speaking of justice to an enemy about to conquer is the last tactic of the weak, willing to try all tactics, even desperate ones, Kautilya made up a powerful speech to be given by a weak king to the king about to conquer, a speech offering a mixture of moral exhortation and arguments based on the self-interest of the conqueror. In this speech, Kautilya depicted an envoy saying to the conquering king that he should accept a treaty and pay regard to [his] spiritual and material well-being; that conquering a kingdom willing to surrender on reasonable terms is an impious act; that battle is not in the conquering kings self-interest, since to fight with brave men who have given up all hope of life is a rash deed and the conqueror will lose troops and material good; that such a conquest will only unite his enemies all the more; that the conquering kings enemies are only waiting for him to be weakened in order to attack; that he himself is risking death; that war itself in which men on each side die is an impious act; and that he should not listen to enemies masquerading as friends who are giving him false advice as to his real self-interest.[13] Kautilya demonstrated the realities of diplomacy and war as well as the ineffectiveness of moral pleas when confronted by a superior power. Kautilya wanted legions, but he wanted them preceded by elephants, which acted in the ancient world a bit like modern tanks. 6. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. And in the absence of a fort, the treasury will fall into the hands of enemies, those with forts are not exterminated.[15] 7. Constraint resolution. Kautilya was consistent in ranking the importance of the treasury, the army, and forts, but it seems that the people, or a popular army, are the most important of all. As he put it, one should seek a fortress with men.[19] 8. Kautilya apparently believed that an army of kshatriyas was best; warriors were supposed to find their highest duty and pleasure by dying in battle. Kautilya clearly argued that sections of the army should consist mostly of persons from the same region, caste or profession. It was a very clever idea to be mooted as common sense, shows that he is suggesting that men of an army should know one another, that an army of friends fighting side by side is the most difficult to defeat. On the subject of the kings location during battle, for example, he wrote: A bare army, without standards, consisting of warriors related as fathers, sons and brothers, should be the place for the king. An elephant or a chariot should be the vehicle for the king, guarded by cavalry. (Kautilya wanted a man who looked like the king to lead the army into battle.) And thus, a kings power, for Kautilya, is in the end tied to the power and popular energy of the people, without which a king can be conquered, for n ot being rooted among his subjects, a king becomes easy to uproot.[20] Although Kautilya wrote of using money to raise an army and even of purchasing heroic men, he was not advocating mercenaries who fought only for pay, but he was merely outlining the cost of paying, supplying, and feeding soldiers. He believed that hereditary troops are better than hired troops; in other words, troops made of men born in the kingdom and thus loyal to the king since birth are better than strangers fighting for money. 9. Contemporary school of thought. While military power may be the primary tool a nation uses to wage war, it is not the only one available. Military power, together with economic and political power, may be used to impose ones will upon an opponent. These other elements of national power, such as economic or political, are linked with military action at the national strategic level and passed to the operational and tactical levels of military actions through constraints or limitations on the use of force. Nevertheless, these other elements of power are not fully integrated at the lower levels of war. In the Marxist tradition, Svechin included the possibility of war on economic and social fronts as well as on a military front. [21] The actions along all fronts must be fully integrated and in accord with the political goals of the struggle. The use of diplomatic efforts to preclude and enemy alliance or a second hostile (military) front and economic efforts to insure sufficient financ ial resources for the conduct of combat operations. 10. While Kautilya had propounded the postulates for constraint management in warfare in the ancient times but the relevance with the contemporary thought is startling. Military power being only one of the instruments of national power has been highlighted by Kautilya and the same thought is holding today. The resolution of the constraints and overriding of the bottlenecks faced by the commander in the battlefield have their genesis in the employment of all the instruments of national power towards conflict resolution and that is why Arthashastra has been regarded as the epitome of statecraft in all the spheres. If decisive military force is used only as a last resort, after extensive diplomatic, economic, political, and even military power short of actual war have failed to break the will of the enemy, a quick and well placed application of military force would leave little opportunity for the implementation of further nonmilitary initiative. One must never lose sight of the overall objective of warfare which is to get the enemy to do ones will. This may be best achieved through a thoughtful and complete linkage of all elements of national power. With that linkage brought down to the operational level, chances for a long-lasting victory will increase dramatically. This is where Arthashastra and the present day war strategy are concomitant. CHAPTER IV ARTHASHASTRA APPROACH TO ECONOMICS OF WAR 1. Economics of the nation state. Economic power has become a very powerful tool to enhance the capabilities of a nation and limit those of an adversary. However, as nations become more intertwined through globalisation, they become more vulnerable to disruptions in their economies, manmade or natural, due to reliance on foreign sources of raw materials, components, finished products, or key services. A nation can also use its economy to try to defeat another power. The nation can use its economic power in attempts to destroy a targets capability to take certain actions or destroy its ability to project power. Although physical defeat of the enemy is more often associated with military operations, economic means are also viable to support the elimination of a nations ability to take certain actions. 2. A nations ability to provide resources to research, develop, and further educate their people can lead to new applications of science and knowledge to solve problems in other words, technology. Technological advances can replace existing weapon and support systems to enhance or expand war fighting capability. Acquiring technology through a nations own human resources or with capital resources can allow the nation to make great leaps in economic progress. 3. Arthashastra view of economy as precursor to military power. Kautilya emphasised that, the three kinds of powers intellectual, compelling, motivating are essentially and unavoidably required to be developed and employed in a manner that they complement each other. None can be used in isolation. According to Kautilya the main aim of any state is to increase ones power, mainly at the cost of the natural enemy. This increase in power is essentially the first step in the realisation of the ambition to conquer the world. However, Kautilya also specifically mentions that the most important factor that must be weighed before starting is the gain expected from the confrontation and the losses likely to be suffered. Normally, the gain that is to accrue should far outweigh the losses in men, animals and expenses in cash and grains. Thus Kautilya professed a thoughtful approach to the cause of expanding ones kingdom and always kept the focus on resolution of the economic constraints in the w ar waging capability of the state. He has also stressed that the king is duty bound to ensure, that the people of his kingdom are happy and content, because, a happy kingdom is likely to be prosperous. He further states that a prosperous and wealthy state is unlikely to succumb to another even in case of a conflict. 4. Kosa or the Treasury. The fifth most important element of the state is the treasury according to Kautilya. All activities of the state depend on finance and therefore sufficient attention needs to be given to the treasury. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. Kautilya lays down various causes that may contribute to the growth or reduction of the treasury. Kautilya says The wealth of the state shall be one acquired lawfully either by inheritance or by the kings own efforts. He further adds that the treasury should be rich enough to withstand any calamity especially when the state has no income for a long time. 5. Managing the economy for power Arthashastra approach. Management of the state necessitated realism, not idealism. It required the prudence and precise calculation of measures undertaken alongside their short and long-term consequences, which formulated the theoretical beginnings of economics: Wealth will slip away from that childish man who constantly consults the stars: the only guiding star of wealth is itself; what can the stars of the sky do? Man, without wealth, does not get it even after a hundred attempts. Just as elephants are needed to catch elephants, so does wealth capture more wealth.[22] Public welfare was contingent upon the strength of the state. The latter was achieved by internal development or territorial expansion, both of which were realized through power.[24] Hence, the prime motive of the state was the never-ending pursuit of artha. It is only after dedicating its energies to this end, can the state or king then move on to fulfilling dharma and kama. As such, the Arthashastra provides extensive coverage on the overall economy, which includes: infrastructure (roadwork, irrigation, forestry, and fortification), weights and measurements, labor and employment, commerce and trade, commodities and agriculture, land use and property laws, money and coinage, interest rates and loan markets, tariffs and taxes, and government expenditures and the treasury. The high level of detail dedicated to these areas demonstrates the remarkable organisation and centralisation of the state idealised in the Arthashastra, and it also supports the view that the information contained in the text is a compilation of works that have endured over long periods of trial and er ror. 6. The Arthashastra is surprisingly calculated on every minute detail and economic function the exact number of panas[25] is provided for every salaried position, legal ramification, commodity, and livestock. Economics was regulated through such central planning and the highly detailed attempts at identifying the optimal amount for every economic function stresses this constant strive towards efficiently improving the overall utility and welfare of society. Along with prudence and careful calculation, the state is advised to be extremely active or energetic in managing the economy, as the Arthashastra states that, The root of material well-being is activity, of material disaster its reverse. In the absence of activity, there is certain destruction of what is obtained and of what is not yet received. By activity reward is obtained, and one also secures abundance of riches.Similarly, a different verse in the same chapter advocates the direction of such activity towards improving publi c welfare. Though seemingly liberal and humanitarian, this too had a very important economic basis. Hence, dedicating resources to the lower rungs of society also strengthened the peripheries of the state, which in turn actuated territorial expansion. Furthermore, providing amenities for the poor masses indirectly stimulated population growth, and thus, the overall growth of the state and economy in the long run. Hence, there is a lot of truth in the verses in which the Arthashastra states that it is the people who constitute a kingdom; like a barren cow, a kingdom without people yields nothing. The emphasis on population growth for indirectly achieving economic prosperity is also hinted elsewhere in the text, in which the Arthashastra strongly prohibits premarital sex and adultery and instead encourages fertility via rewards and punishments framed within the legal system. Central planning was directed towards maintaining stability, order, and efficiency in the economy. 7. Kautilyas Principle and Aim of Economy Artha can therefore be summed up as Peace can be maintained by making war difficult and costly for the enemy through the balance of power achieved through alliances. 8. Contemporary perspective. Whilst the basis of exerting power of any country has been that of expansion in the last twenty odd years the focus has shifted from territorial expansion to one of economic expansion. There are a number of examples of countries or coalitions trying to exert pressure on other countries to ensure the protection of their own economic interests. The engagements between all the countries of the world bear testimony to the fact that almost all parties have been trying to protect their own interests in dealing with others. The principles enumerated by Kautilya in his policy of Samdhi or Treaty have almost universal application today. Countries today are indulging in more and more treaties or accords than ever before to safeguard their own interests. 9. Kautilya also mentions that war should be declared as a last resort and that all other means like sama, dana, and bheda (conciliation, gifts/bribes, dissension) should be implemented towards averting war. In other words Kautilya prefers putting pressure on the enemy without breaking the peace. These very principles have been laid down in Chapter I of the United Nations Charter, where article I states To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace. 10. This brings forth the justification of the well being of the society as the predominant factor since the ancient times till date. Also, the diversion of the resources meant for the well being of the society towards the war waging potential without the exploitation of all the options towards resolution is being despised upon. This was relevant during Kautilyas times and is as relevant today. Though economy is a major constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state, and all efforts are made by the state to strengthen this instrument of national power prior to gaining the military ascendency, it is also proving to be a major restraint in controllong the expansionist attitude of states since ancient times. CHAPTER V DERIVATION OF MILITARY POWER FROM ECONOMIC POWER 1. Economic power. Economic power can be defined broadly as the capacity to influence other states through economic means. It is composed of a countrys industrial base, natural resources, capital, technology, geographic position, health system and education system. 2. Military power. Military power is the capacity to use force or the threat of force to influence other states. Components of military power include number of divisions, armaments, organisation, training, equipment, readiness, deployment and morale. 3. Power is an elusive concept. In the historical perspective, military power has been paramount and economic power a luxury. This has slowly changed to the point that the two roles have become interchangeable. A countrys military capability is derived from its economic capacity. A countrys economic capacity also de

Messages of George Orwells Animal Farm Essay examples -- George Orwel

Messages of George Orwell's Animal Farm Though Animal Farm can be considered nothing more than a charming animal fable depicting a doomed rebellion, its origin is actually of a more serious and political nature. It is not only the tale of Napoleon and Animal Farm, but a satire and commentary on that of the Russian Revolution, Stalin and Communism. For a person to gain a true understanding of Orwell's meaning in Animal Farm, it is best that he or she has an understanding of the political parties and history surrounding Communism, Stalin, and the upheaval and fear that followed Stalin's rise to power. Orwell did not write Animal Farm simply as a bed time story for children, or for a work to be studied by students in their classes. As Alok Rai stated, "Orwell's Animal Farm was a calculated outrage, a deliberately provocative affront to the contemporary admiration for the Soviet Union, whose armies were fighting with epic heroism against Hitler's dread war machine. This background is crucial to a correct understanding of Orwell's brilliantly serious jest" (113). To draw the similarities between Napoleon the pig and Stalin, or Snowball the pig and Trotsky is part of what makes this book so interesting, and to do so one must have some knowledge of the political issues Orwell was writing about at the time. As stated, it is helpful for a person who is reading Animal Farm to have some knowledge of history to fully appreciate the novel. What was the political situation that was taking place during the time in which Orwell wrote Animal Farm? For one, World War II was occurring, though by the time the novel was published it was close to the end of the war. Stalin was in control of the Soviet Union, under a Communist rule, though th... ...ther and, to whomsoever power was entrusted, it was almost certain to be abused. For power was itself corrupting" (147). This can, of course, be one of several different messages that are taken away from the novel by a reader. Does one, then, have to be a political history student to understand all that goes on in Animal Farm? No. History student or not, there are several messages to be found within the novel, which anyone is capable of finding, if it is read properly. However, to fully appreciate all that Orwell attempted to accomplish with Animal Farm, or to see the parallels between the novel and the turmoil of Orwell's reality, it is important to have some grasp of the politics and history of that time. Otherwise, though not all the messages he intended within the pages of Animal Farm will be lost, the majority of ironies and parallels most certainly will be.

Development throughout history of the concept of childhood

What are the past beginnings and philosophical constructs of childhood? Has the society ever treated the kid as a ‘whole individual ‘ , given him or her the necessary position in society? Was there a break-through in outlook? The intent of this essay is, to assist me place and derive an apprehension to see whether childhood became an established and recognized clip of life for the kid throughout the centuries. Personally, I believe that, all kids deserve an chance to turn out their capablenesss and that they should be respected as persons. However, until around the 12th century, European society did non believe of childhood as an of import period of development, in the mode that we do today. Children were non cherished as persons. In the Middle Ages, kids had no position in society, and were considered as ‘miniature ‘ grownups. Children were trained to go the future productive members of the society or community. Furthermore, the immature kids were non expected to necessitate any particular intervention. This quiet attitude, reflected profoundly in the deficiency of schools available. The possibility of holding proper instruction was distant, and considered to be an excessive luxury tantrum merely for the male childs coming from affluent households. Children ‘s public assistance and rights were still non recognised or acknowledged. But society ‘s political orientation towards the construct of childhood changed bit by bit from clip to clip. Research shows that finally, kids stopped being consider ed as an add-on part to their households ‘ fiscal economic system. Thankss to the enterprise attempts and work of influential international figures, new constructs of childhood were introduced. New systems and reforms were established to give position to the kid. Towards the 20th century instruction replaced child-labour. Unlike old centuries, society acknowledged the assets of the kid ‘s educational part, instead than his fiscal input. Since so, instruction became the chief component of childhood, and has become a necessity. Much can be said about the twenty- first century where, individuality and creativeness are synonymous with early childhood.Surveies into the history of childhood during the medieval timesThis was non ever the instance, as one of the most controversial issues of the survey of childhood ‘s history is whether or non kids were treated as illumination grownups. Early surveies into the history of childhood were those of Rams Philippe ( 1962 ) , and Lloyd De Mause, ( 1976 ) . Both historiographers came to a decision and stated that the kids ‘s public assistance has evolved significantly throughout the last centuries.A Both historiographers give a really negative image of mediaeval childhood. Lloyd De Mause ( 1976 ) went every bit far as stating that ; A † The history of childhood is a incubus from which we have merely late begun to rouse, † Furthermore he stated that ; â€Å" The farther back in history one goes, the lower the degree of kid attention, and the more likely kids are to be killed, abandoned, crush, terrorized, and sexually abused † . Lloyd De Mause, ( ed. ) , The History of Childhood ( London, 1976 ) . Furthermore, Aries pointed out and supported this thought by stating that, â€Å" It is difficult to believe that this disregard was due to incompetence or incapacity ; it seems more likely that there was no topographic point for childhood in the mediaeval universe. â€Å" ( Aries, 2002, p.33 ) Furthermore, in his book ‘Centuries of childhood ‘ , he continues to prolong this statement by stating that â€Å" there was no construct of childhood as a stateA different to adulthood in these centuries, and hence, even if parents did experience fondness for their progeny, they did non to the full understand how to react to the emotional demands of their kids. â€Å" . Aries, Philippe, 1962, Centuries of Childhood, New York: Random House However, this statement was strongly challenged by Hawalt et Al ( 1986 ) . To turn out her point she researched corner inquest records where it was concluded that mediaeval households did in fact make a differentiation between a kid and an grownup. Hawalt ( 1986 ) Hwang, P.C. , in Lamb, ME. , and Sigel I.E. ( erectile dysfunction ) ( 1996 ) Images of Childhood. London: Routledge David Archard ( 2001 ) , besides agrees with this sentiment. He argues that, â€Å" all societies at all times have had the construct of childhood, that is to state, the construct that kids can be distinguished from grownups in assorted ways † Archard D. , in Heywood. C ( erectile dysfunction ) ( 2001 ) A history of Childhood. USA: Blackwell Publishers Inc. Linda Pollack, ( 1983 ) in her strict research criticised badly all the sentiments of Rams and de Mause and argues that childhood was non every bit austere as it was implied by these two authors. She continues to prolong her point and says, that the parents ever treated their kids in the same manner and that there was no alteration at all during this period. Furthermore, she argues that childhood did non germinate much during this period. A † The texts reveal no important alteration in the quality of parental attention given to, or the sum of fondness felt for babies for the period 1500-1900 † Linda Pollock, Forgotten Children – Parent: Child Relationss from 1500-1900 ( Cambridge University Press, 1983 ) . It is deserving presuming that, there are different sentiments of how childhood was perceived throughout the centuries. In order to find this, it is of import to set up if there was a alteration, how it changed, and the concluding result of this alteration. The alteration through History â€Å" Any state and people that truly believes attending to kids ‘s attention and instruction during the early old ages is of incomputable value to society would do every sensible attempt to put in preschool instruction † . Early on Childhood Education diary, Vol 32, no 3 December 2004 ( c2004 ) Blended perspectives A Global vision for high Quality E.C.E. Between the 16th and seventeenth century ( pre-industrial period ) , England was chiefly rural and agricultural. During their childhood, childs worked in the Fieldss. If they could non work on their households ‘ farm, they were put to work elsewhere. The modern thought of childhood being separated from adulthood life, started to develop throughout the 16th century. Middle category parents began to demand some signifier of formal educational system for their boies. Consequently, schooling for male childs started acquiring popular. This radical societal attitude towards kids and childhood, now requested new educational commissariats. The figure of new schools began spread outing throughout Europe. Parents opted for their kids to go to school, instead than learning them grown-up accomplishments. By the terminal of the 16th century, and beginning of the 17th century, society started separating the function of a kid from that of an grownup. This new construct of childhood put upper category kids in the spotlight, and they shortly became a beginning of amusement among grownups. They were dressed stylish apparels and were the delectation of their parents. However, another new perceptual experience of the construct of childhood shortly arose amongst the church and the moralists, who felt that during the early old ages, religious development was of import. They thought that kids needed subject and instruction. The kid was perceived as â€Å" a delicate animal, who must be protected, educated, and moulded in conformity with the current educational beliefs and ends † . ( Aries, 2002, p.35 ) However, during the Victorian age, the idea of holding any primary instruction was still non that indispensable. However, the Victorian epoch has been depicted by historiographers, as a footing of the modern construct of early childhood instruction. Paradoxically, during this period, the Industrial revolution promoted child labor. At this clip, the industrial Revolution brought on new occupations. Children worked daily in coal mines and mills. They carried out risky occupations. They were ideal for these occupations as they were nimble, and could creep into little topographic points between the heavy machines. They were paid less than grownups. Throughout their childhood, male childs and misss had no pick but to work hard, in order to assist their households. This was non considered mean or odd, because parents thought that work was of import for the fiscal state of affairs of their households. Throughout this clip, kids spent their childhood crammed in overcrowded suites and unhealthy environment. All this resulted in bad wellness, hurts, and sometimes even decease. In his novels, Charles Dickens ( 1812 ) emphasizes on the badness of their childhood. Child manual labor was easy diminished and eventually stopped in Britain. This alteration was brought on through the debut of the mill Acts of 1802-1878. Britain and all Europe were still short of any primary educational proviso. During the 17th and eighteenth century, â€Å" Monitorial † schools, which were established by the Quaker, Joseph Lancaster, and the New Lanark simple schools, founded by Robert Owen were the lone foundations which provided instruction for the babies. During this period there was still the thought that instruction throughout childhood was irrelevant. The bulk of the kids did non go to school, as it was non yet compulsory. Merely boys coming from affluent households could afford to travel to school. They were provided with simple instruction to assist them with basic literacy, and arithmetic. On the other manus, small misss in Britain, stayed at place, to larn how to go good married womans. Disabled kids were besides capable to be neglected and forgott en. However, it was really improbable for kids to hold good quality occupations when they became grownups. Lloyd de Mause ( 1976 ) supports this statement, and says that kids grew up ‘unable to compose or read ‘ . De Mause, Lloyd, ( 1976 ) . ( ed. ) , The History of Childhood: London, The Victorians bit by bit started gaining the function of the kid during childhood. Influential reformists started going aware of the true construct of childhood. They started debating the development of kids. Politicians besides become witting that educating kids could be an plus to the future society. Since so this construct of childhood remained dominant in other societies. Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) sustains this by â€Å" the instruction of immature kids could lend to the development of a better society † Nutbrown C. , Clough P. , and Selbie P ( 2010 ) Early on Childhood Education. , London: Sage publications Throughout history, early childhood pedagogues struggled to better kids ‘s instruction and holistic demands. Historically they all sustained the same thought that of kids need instruction to develop their maximal potency. However these influential figures were n't all of the same sentiment about the instruction and theories of larning. They disagreed on several issues, but all emphasized on the importance of a multi-sensory attack to acquisition. Froebel, Montessori and Steiner all agreed upon touchable stuff which enabled the kid to research and detect the universe around them. Some other innovators of that clip assumed that kid ‘s development is an innate accomplishment. Although their construct of kid ‘s development differed, Russeau, Piaget and Vygotsky all agreed that the kid ‘s features were portion of ‘nature ‘ . Consequently, during the eighteenth and 19th centuries schools started being established by helpers and politicians who believed that society could be of an advantage by holding better educated kids. Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) wrote, ‘Schools were being developed and systems devised and expanded, non merely by spiritual administrations and helpers, but besides of class by the socially and politically motivated who were driven, non by spiritual strong belief but by a belief that the instruction of immature kids could lend to the development of a better society ‘ . When compulsory instruction was introduced in the 19th century there was a despairing opposition from propertyless households. They needed the kids ‘s rewards and would non interchange them for instruction. However, the work and attempt of early innovators contributed to the historical and philosophical alterations which finally improved the function of the kids in society. Influential Figures and their doctrine of childhood Education is the uterus in which our society reproduces itself and re-creates itself for the hereafter. ( Louis Galea Minister of Education, National Minimum Curriculum Malta -1999 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //curriculum.gov.mt/docs/nmc_english.pdf Many influential figures in history started altering the thoughts, the policies and wonts of how early instruction was perceived by society. The thought that educating kids would give part to society was accepted. Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) pg 5, sustains this statement when she wrote and said ‘seeing instruction and schooling as portion of what we could name a societal intercession to do a difference to the lives of hapless and orphaned kids ‘ Influential figures that contributed in the development of early childhood instruction are brought up in this survey. Although their thoughts of childhood development were different, all of them thought that the kid ‘s unconditioned inclinations and characteristic were portion of ‘nature ‘ and that larning should be by find and non by instructions. Comenius ( 1592-1670 ) , is credited for presenting the first illustration book for kids who was called: â€Å" Orbis Pictus ( The World of Pictures ) . He believed that kids needed images to assist them larn. His doctrine was based upon the thought that, kids should be permitted to play, learn and detect at their ain gait. He compared the kids to ‘seeds ‘ Selbie & A ; Clough ( 2005 ) diary of early childhood research 2005, Sage Publications ( www.sagepublications.com ) Nutbrown C et Al ( 2010 ) pg 113 sustains this and says, that they need a ‘guiding manus to assist them boom ‘ , and that ‘a kid can non be forced to larn ‘ . Nevertheless, she continues to state that ‘a kid will bloom into the flower he or she was created to go ‘ . Furthermore, she believes in societal betterment of inclusive instruction where ‘all kids should have their instruction, whatever their gender and societal category ‘ . In Nutbrown C. et Al ( 2010 ) During the 18th century Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( 1712-1778 ) , a philosopher, first wrote about ‘nurturing ‘ kids as opposed to the ‘repressive ‘ position taken at the clip ( MacLeod-Brudenell 2004 ) . Rousseau renowned for his book Emilie, encouraged free drama. He focused on the encompassing scenes. His manner is still followed today in early childhood categories. Following on from his work, other theoreticians have developed changing attacks to the attention and instruction of kids. Pestalozzi, ( 1746-1827 ) , born in Zurich, believed that kids should ‘discover the universe through activity ‘ . Nutbrown C. et Al ( 2001 ) Pg 112. His want was to educate the kid as a whole person. His involvements in kids ‘s rights makes him an of import focal point of historical and philosophical surveies. He was one of the primary laminitiss of inclusive instruction and subsequently founded a school for misss. Following Pestallozi, was Robert Owen ( ( 1771-1858 ) , who started the first simple schools for kids whose parents and older brothers worked in the New Lanark Mills. Furthermore, as stated in the book early childhood instruction, Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) he was ‘making an instruction of the community ‘ . He supported the passage of the Factory Act of 1819, and was the first from prohibiting instructors to hit kids. ‘I support a doctrine of instruction which does its best to cut down any demand for penalty ‘ Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) early childhood instruction Sage Publications Friedrich Froebel ( 1782-1852 ) , a German pedagogue, was one of the early innovators of the reformation of childhood instruction. As an dreamer, he supported the thought, that every kid from birth had educational potency, and that an appropriate educational scene was imperative to assist the kid to go on to turn and develop his or her optimum potency. â€Å" Young kids are to be regarded and tended basically similar workss. Like these, if they were given the right conditions, they would turn and unfold and flower, by their ain jurisprudence, each harmonizing to its single capacity and fate. † ( Lawrence, 1969, p.195 ) Lawrence, E ( 1969 ) Friedrich Froebel and English Education London, Routledge & A ; Kegan Paul Froebel believed that a kid should larn at his ain gait, and the kid should ne'er be hurried or rushed in this childhood development.â€Å" Young animate beings and workss are given remainder, and arbitrary intervention with their growing is avoided, because it is known that the opposite pattern would upset their pure flowering and sound development ; but, the immature human being is looked upon as a piece of wax or a ball of clay which adult male can model into what he pleases † ( Froebel, 1907, p. 8 ) .Froebel, F. ( 1907 ) The Education of Man New York, Appleton & A ; Co Froebel s doctrine was based on the importance of drama through manipulative stuffs, creativeness and motor experience. ‘Children must get the hang the linguistic communication of things before they master the linguistic communication of words ‘ Friedrich Froebel ( 1895 ) Pedagogies of the Kindergarten research publishing house on cyberspace He maintained the thought that a immature kid can merely larn through direct contact with touchable objects. Froebel ‘s dream was to make a universe for small kids†¦ a universe which he called kindergarten. Harmonizing to Froebel, â€Å" drama is the freest active manifestation of the kid ‘s inner ego which springs from the demand of that interior life consciousness to recognize itself externally. † ( Bowen, 1907, p.116 ) Bowen, H. ( 1907 ) Froebel and Education by Self-Activity London, William Heinemann In Froebel ‘s kindergarten, activities through drama enhanced a kid ‘s societal, emotional, physical and rational development. Play was the most of import stairss in the kid ‘s growing. Froebel was fascinated by the kid innate want to play. â€Å" It is through drama that the kid learns the usage of his limbs, of all his bodily variety meats, and with this usage additions wellness and strength. Through drama he comes to cognize the external universe, the physical qualities of the objects which surround him, their gestures, action, and reaction upon each other, and the relation of these phenomena to himself, iˆÂ ­ a cognition that forms the footing of that which will be his lasting stock for life. † ( Bowen, 1907, p.101 ) Bowen, H. ( 1907 ) Froebel and Education by Self-Activity London, William Heinemann To prolong his doctrine, he provided the babies with educational playthings to excite their creativeness. Charlotte Mason ( 1842-1923 ) , another innovator, whose doctrine in educating was by allowing kids use their ain senses and larn through experience. She besides encouraged place instruction. On the other manus, the Macmillan Sisters ( 1859-1931 ) dedicated their lives on advancing a combined sort of service, that of societal, wellness and instruction. This was to promote female parents to convey their kids to the baby's room. Children stayed in well-supervised drama countries. They introduced wellness and societal public assistance in their kindergarten schools to cover with a holistic development of the kid. Rudolf Steiner ( 1861-1925 ) , an Austro-Hungarian philosopher believed that larning should be holistic. In his Waldorf schools, trades music and humanistic disciplines played an of import factor in the school ‘s course of study. Whereas, Montessori and Froebel focused on other facets of larning that of single find, Steiner based his thoughts on more societal facets. Maria Montessori ( 1870-1952 ) , an Italian doctor, worked with hapless and mentally handicapped kids. She taught them self help accomplishments. Montessori besides believed that kids had an unconditioned ability to larn educational accomplishments. In the Montessori environment, kids were encouraged to rectify their ain errors, therefore allowing the kid to be reinforced positively and later get an internal satisfaction. Whilst Froebel believed that concrete objects would besides learn abstract constructs, Maria Montessori believed that kids ‘s acquisition would steer and assist the kid to construct up a better hereafter. Her multi-sensory attack to acquisition is still really popular in kindergarten categories. Another innovator, Susan Sutherland Isaacs ‘s ( 1885-1948 ) influence is still experienced in schools. She established the ‘experimenting ‘ Malting House School in 1924. Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) pg 54 her doctrine highlighted the construct of ‘discovery ‘ acquisition and drama as the kid ‘s primary instruction. She besides believed in the ‘maximum usage of the out-of-doorss ‘ Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 ) pg 107 Jean Piaget ‘s ( 1896-1980 ) doctrine besides respected kids as ‘independent scholars ‘ . He argued that kids learn from their self-generated engagement of activities. He besides emphasised the engagement of drama to heighten cognitive development. ‘Piaget viewed drama as a procedure in which the kid is active and through which the kid learns ‘ , ( O'Hagan and Smith, 1993, p.69 ) . O'Hagan, M. & A ; Smith, M. ( 1993 ) Early Old ages Child Care and Education: Key Issues 2nd erectile dysfunction. China: Tindall Piaget spoke about kids during their childhood as being ‘egocentric ‘ , that is to state that because of their restricted cognition of the universe, they have problem understanding the point of position of others. His work presented much unfavorable judgment. Donaldson ( 1978 ) in peculiar argued that many of Piaget ‘s research lacked relation to existent life. ( Donaldson 1978 ) . Donaldson, M. ( 1978 ) Children ‘s Minds London: Fontana Another early theoretician, who can be remembered as a ‘constructivist ‘ is Lev Vygotsky ( 1896-1934 ) . Whilst holding with Piaget that kids were ‘active ‘ scholars, he placed more weight on societal communicating with others, as a manner to excite acquisition. He introduced the ‘zone of proximal development ‘ . Although he besides believed that rational development was natural, he argued that a kid had to hold the counsel of grownups to achieve her optimum potency. ( MacLeod-Brudenell, 2004 ) . MacLeod-Brudenell, I. ( Ed ) ( 2004 ) Advanced Early Years Care and Education Oxford: Heinemann. It can be argued that, the doctrine of these historical figures can be correlated to their reading of the issue of ‘children ‘s rights ‘ . All agree that kids have the right to larn. Jalango M.R. et Al, support this thought by saying that â€Å" All immature kids have a right to develop optimally, to hold their intrinsic worth as human existences recognised, and to hold their acquisition facilitated by caring grownups † Jalongo M.R. , Fennimore B.S. , Pattnark. J. , Laverick D. M. , Brewster J. , and Mutuku M. ( 2004 ) Blended positions: A Global vision, † Early on Childhood Education Journal Vol 32, no 3 The construct that acquisition is a procedure which can non be hurried has been echoed through clip by all innovators of Early Childhood Education. Nowadays kids are made to larn from printed out press releases. It is hard for me to believe that immature babies can accomplish more from this formal instruction, than they do from experimenting with age- appropriate undertakings. Presents, the ideal kindergarten schoolroom is allowing kids experimenting in an enriched environment, caring for pets and workss, originative picture, prosecuting themselves in function drama and above all acquiring messy. Acts and Legislations â€Å" There is no responsibility more of import than guaranting that kids ‘s rights are respected, that their public assistance is protected, that their lives are free from fright and that they can turn up in peace † . Kofi Annan, the 7th Secretary-General of the United Nations It is argued that all kids ought to hold an equal chance to show their abilities and should be respected as persons. Unfortunately this was non ever the issue. In 1862, the Revised Code was established. Grants were given to simple schools harmonizing to the class of public presentation and abilities of its students. Gradually, the life for hapless kids started altering. It took some clip for the present authorities to make up one's mind that it was of import for the kids to be protected by jurisprudence. Child-labour was discussed in parliament, and it was established that no kid under the age of 10 was allowed to work in a mine. Parliament besides passed a jurisprudence necessitating kids to go to school every hebdomad. This was presented in parliament by Lord Shaftesbury who subsequently on founded and was president of the Ragged School Union. These ‘ragged schools ‘ were for hapless kids. However, school was non yet mandatory, and kids had to pay for this service. The Forster Education Act of 1870 came into force and required that all England would supply simple schools to immature kids. The Mundella Code of 1882 brought on a large alteration. Finally, schooling became mandatory. All kids had to go to school till the age of 10 and subsequently on it became obligatory till the age of 12. Shortly after on, the school ‘s ‘pence ‘ fee was removed. Discussions started in parliament, to make up one's mind the age when a kid should get down go toing school. The thought of directing the kids a twelvemonth before other European states was brought up by Mundella. He addressed the parliament and said â€Å" I ask you Englishmen and Englishwomen are Austrian kids to be educated before English kids? † ( National Education League 1869:133 ) National Education League 1869:133 ) Report of the General Meetings of the Members of the National Education League. , Birmingham: National Education League After the Second World War, in Britain, the lessening in household siblings and the shuting down of kindergarten schools had lessened the chance for small kids to play and socialize. At that clip, the Local Education Authorities ( LEAs ) found it difficult to add to the figure of baby's rooms, as the Ministry of Education Circular 8/60 said that there could be no addition in nursery school proviso. The deficit of LEA baby's room topographic points and the uninterrupted addition of parental consciousness in the small kids ‘s well-being and instruction during their childhood, triggered a new kind of nursery proviso, that of baby's room groups. In 1972, the Secretary of State for Education, Ms. Margaret Thatcher presented a White Paper, which planned for nursery twenty-four hours schools to be provided for the small kids. There was no turning back. Nowadays research shows that kids ‘s rights are recognised internationally. These have been acknowledged in most of the states, through both international and national pacts. The most of import Torahs which contributed to the rights of the kids are, The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, Declaration of Human Rights, Children Act 1989, the Education Act 2002, Every Child Matters, and the new Childcare Act 2006 which is wholly devoted to early childhood pattern. Furthermore, the Salamanca Statement, 1994 -UNESCO besides states that all kids irrespective of their civilization, ability or linguistic communication have the right to develop their single potency. Historically, kids with particular demands were excluded from mainstream categories. This became a major human r ights issue. ‘Regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effectual agencies of battling prejudiced attitudes, making welcoming society and accomplishing instruction for all † The Salamanca Statement 1994, UNESCO 1994 Clearly now all the kids are active persons who â€Å" can lend to society amongst others, and who are much more competent than we choose to believe and at much younger ages excessively † . Freeman cited in King, ( 2007:210 ) King, M. ( 2007 ) Children ‘s rights to engagement. In Waller, T. ( 2007 ) An debut to Early Childhood. Paul Chapman: London The Establishment of Laws and Acts in Malta Education is the uterus in which our society reproduces itself and re-creates itself for the hereafter. ( Louis Galea Minister of Education, National Minimum Curriculum Malta -1999 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //curriculum.gov.mt/docs/nmc_english.pdf During the 19th and beginning of the 20th century in Malta, the huge bulk of Maltese households besides lived in great poorness. Childhood was non much different for Maltese kids. Boys, at a really early age, were sent to labor in Fieldss to assist their households whilst, misss helped their female parents at place. As the Maltese households were really hapless, the necessity to supply their kids with proper instruction was ne'er considered. During the British stay in Malta, the Governor Sir Henry F. Bouviere ( 1836-42 ) engaged Mr. John Austin the High Commission to make research about the state of affairs of the Maltese households. In the Commissioner ‘s study of 1836, Mrs. Sarah Austin commented on the Maltese kids and stated that: â€Å" The moral and rational part of the people is awful. No schools in the Casals, no tolerable instruction for the middling categories, a University whose first professor received ?25 a twelvemonth, no imperativeness, no topographic point for treatment, no intercourse with the English of an amicable and informative type- what wonder if they are nescient and infantile. The lone thing I can non understand is how life is sustained under these fortunes. †Quoted from Dr. David R. Marshall in History of the Maltese Language in Local Education ( Malta, University Press 1971 ) pg 13In 1849, in Malta there were merely 30 primary schools, whilst in Gozo merely two little schools were established. Sir Patrick Joseph Keenan, the current Commissioner composing a study about, in 1881 besides suggested ‘payment harmonizing to consequences obtained by kids ‘ . Teachers were paid harmonizing to the consequences, which were obtained by the kids. These had to sit for an test which was given by the ‘inspector ‘ . This English system was besides used in Malta boulder clay 1900. J. Zammit Mangion provinces ; ‘the dictatorship of reading and authorship and calculation was now complete. The kids were trained like arrow to bark at print ‘ . J Zammit Mangion, in op.cit. p.135. In the early 20th century ( 1927 ) a study was carried out in Malta, and Pawlu F. Bellanti ( 1901 ) stated that, â€Å" the fact that about 50 per cent of the lifting coevals are turning up without any kind of preparation or direction is of excessively serious a nature to be left unnoticed. † Bellanti P.F. , Census of the Maltese Islands taken on the Sunday the 31st March, 1901, under Ordinances no X of 1900 and NoIII of 1901, ( Malta Government Printing Office, 1903 ) p.LVII In 1944 the Education act gave rise to the creative activity of other schools and in 1981, the creative activity of particular educational demands schools. The Education Act in Malta came into force in 1988. It declared that obligatory instruction commences at the age of 5 old ages. It besides declared that it was the duty of every parent of a kid to do certain that their baby had to go to school everyday during the whole scholastic twelvemonth. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.european-agency.org/country-information/malta/national-overview/legal-system It was a interruption through for all the kids. Inclusive instruction was besides a large issue and the Maltese National Minimum Curriculum ( 1999 ) , dedicates a subdivision wholly to early childhood instruction. It acknowledges inclusive Education as one of the basic rules in instruction. By contrast to old centuries, a kid with a disablement now attends a mainstream kindergarten, with other kids. In 2000 The Equal Opportunities Act was established in ParliamentInfo. The Equal Opportunities Act ( 2000 ) spoke about inclusion and stated that it was against the jurisprudence for an educational entity to know apart against handicapped kids. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.european-agency.org/country-information/malta/national-overview/legal-system My memories of childhood â€Å" All immature kids have the right to develop optimally to hold their intrinsic worth as human existences recognized and to hold their acquisition installations by caring grownups † Jalango M.R. , Fennimore B.S. , Pattmark. J. , Laverick De Anna M. , Brewster J. , and Mutuku M. ( 2004 ) Blended Positions: A planetary vision ( from ) Early on childhood Education Journal Vol 32, no 3, December 2004 The class of developing the construct of childhood is an on-going uninterrupted pattern. In the twentieth century the most critical alteration in the public assistance of kids was the dramatic reformation in wellness issues and instruction. Governments funded societal benefits which later, enabled the kid to widen his or her life anticipation and to hold a better instruction. Vaccines and medical specialty were administered to extinguish childhood diseases and schools were established all over Europe. However, I was raised up in Gozo, the little sister island of Malta, and traditions were still more dominant. Religion was the chief focal point of the community and households. I attended a convent school run by a spiritual society. The sisters in the baby's room ran the kindergarten school in a really regime manner. We ever started our twenty-four hours with supplications and anthem. Morning lessons started with mathematics and we would declaim over and over once more a set of Numberss. A paragraph from the Holy Bible was read every forenoon by the female parent superior, whilst we subsequently chanted Psalmss until we got them perfect. However, I do n't hold affectionate memories of this school, as I still retrieve the gustatory sensation of pod liver oil which I had to digest as a ‘compulsory daintiness ‘ . I was ne'er allowed to larn through geographic expedition or drama. No stimulating or originative activities were introduced. However an enriched nurturing environment was provided at place. My childhood memories at place with my household are both memorable and positive. A balanced life was maintained where my emotional and physical basic demands were provided and catered for. Like a sponge I absorbed the basic foundations of maturity which finally helped me take duties of a parent. My parents provided me with love, instruction, protection and were my role-models. Fantastic odors filled our house and my place was a topographic point of comfort and love. As a kid I remember holding completed my prep, embarking outside and playing in the empty streets. It was traditional to play in the quiet backstreets. We invented new games and played ‘hopscotch ‘ , ‘catch ‘ , ‘hide and seek ‘or beads and marbles. We engaged ourselves in ‘miniature grownup ‘ function and we played for really long periods without any grownup ‘s supervising or intervention. This playing in the street allowed me to increase my creativeness, develop my leading and enabled me to work as a group. It is through drama that I interacted with the universe around me. It brought out the maximal potency of my childhood ‘s development – intellectually, physically, socially and emotionally. The purposes of early childhood instruction Pestalozzi and many other innovators, agree that instruction is good to society, to the state ‘s economic system but most of all for the person who will hold an chance to turn out his abilities. This is supported by Nutbrown et Al ( 2010 pg 179 ) who states that ; â€Å" Society and the economic system of a state are enhance as a consequence of improved instruction, but instruction is about something else every bit good and should be valued as a manner of assisting single work forces, adult females and kids to go more to the full cognizant of themselves and their possible within themselves to develop as human existences † . Nutbrown C. , Clough P. , Selbie P. , ( 2010 ) Early on Childhood Education Sage London As all research workers and historiographers agree, the first few old ages of the kid are important. Both Vygotsky and Piaget had the same sentiment that kids are active scholars. However, Vygotsky placed more accent on societal interaction with grownups. Social behaviors are encouraged in early childhood instruction. At school a kid can larn through take parting, detecting behavior, and function modeling. Socialisation encourages teamwork and turntaking. It besides enhances linguistic communication accomplishments, and expands their vocabulary. And as Nutbrown ( 2010 ) argues ‘Children are born with a demand to play and research ‘ Nutbrown C et Al pg11 Early Childhood Education Froebel and Isaac besides sustain the same positions. A kid can heighten his or her societal, emotional, rational and physical development through playing activities. This besides applies to today ‘s thoughts, where kids in a kinder school experiment with playthings and things around them. Imaginative drama helps them, develop rational accomplishments. Children will endeavor to work harder when promised positive supports. Robert Owen was one of the innovators who believed in wagess. On the other manus, physical development is encouraged when kids play with sand and H2O, manipulate clay, or do finger picture. As one can reason, early childhood instruction promotes the optimum schemes to develop the kid ‘s maximal development. Childhood at the bend of the 20 first century As one can gain, history is reiterating itself. It is deserving reflecting, how we are rekindling the thoughts of past innovators and later go throughing them on as our ain â€Å" new † thoughts. This is supported by Rosemary Peacocke ( 1999 ) , when she stated that it is a affair of â€Å" old vino in new bottles, old Plasticine in new forms † . She continues to prolong her positions by stating that history comes as a â€Å" round way † . Whilst Cathy Nutbrown ( 2010 ) besides supports this thought and claims that â€Å" nil is new, thoughts merely repeat † . I ask, do we larn from history, or do we perpetrate the same errors? Lesley Abbott and Helen Moylett ( 1999 ) Early Education Transformed. London: Palmer PressCathy Nutbrown, Peter Clough, Philip Selbie ( 2010 ) Early on Childhood Education History Philosphy and Experience. London: Sage Publications BibliographyResearch workers of the hereafter will maintain traveling back to the instructions of past philosophers, in hope of accomplishing the perfect consequence for the optimum upbringing of kids, that of nurturing, and educating each kid to achieve his or her maximal possible through her childhood â€Å" It is indispensable to hold a better conceptual articulation of what good early childhood instruction is, with appropriate appraisal and rating, which does non cut across its valuable traditions † . ( Bruce, 1997, p.204 ) Bruce, T. ( 1997 ) Early on Childhood Education London, Hodder & A ; Stoughton Ironically many of the thoughts that shaped the kids ‘s features of past century still use today. Children still work, the difference being, that sometimes they do odd occupations to gain excess pocket money to purchase new entertaining engineerings. Girls are non needed as ‘little mas ‘ anymore, but play practical households on the computing machine. Since the beginning of indoor activities such as computer/ picture games, and telecasting, serious concerns have evolved about childhood-life. The freedom of childhood which was so much believed in and encouraged by early innovators is being now endangered by the fright of development of new engineerings. Today the modern construct of childhood is that society position kids as â€Å" societal existences, active in the building of their ain worlds and subjectivenesss and hence potentially active in the building and deconstruction of dominant political orientations † ( Cole, 2004, p.6 ) Cole, M ( 2004 ) † Time to Emancipate the Mind: primary Schools in the New Century † Primary Teaching Studies, August 2004, Trentham Books Life for kids is once more being restricted, as now they live in big blocks of flats, with small infinite or clip to be originative. Much can be debated about the continued being of kids ‘s street civilization which reigned supreme during my childhood! Is this ‘golden epoch ‘ for kids? Decision Despite all this, in this exciting clip of uninterrupted development, I have to acknowledge that this century is offering kids in their early old ages, better public assistance and acquisition chances, which are appropriate to their single demands. This survey has enabled me to sketch the early childhood twelvemonth, and set up that these old ages are influential on a kid ‘s big life. I came to a decision that the attitude of society towards the construct of childhood throughout the centuries has changed in a positive manner, and society presents perceives childhood as an of import factor in a kid ‘s life. Unlike kids of past ages, now have position in society and are persons. Qvortrup et Al, ( 1994 ) besides supports this fact by stating that â€Å" Childs today are no longer seen as uncomplete grownups non yet able to take part in societal life, but as co-constructors of childhood and society † . Qvortrup, J. , M. Bardy, G. Sgritta and H. Wintersberger ( 1994 ) Childhood Matters: Social Theory, Practice and Politics. Aldershot: Avebury.